说明 1. 译自Aatish Bhatia的博文What does randomness look
like? 2. 译自Aatish Bhatia的博文Are mass shootings really random
events? A look at the US numbers. 3.
部分借鉴自马同学高等数学中的文章“如何理解泊松分布?”
更抽象一点,T时刻内卖出k个馒头的概率为: \[\lim _{n\rightarrow \infty }\begin{pmatrix} n \\
k \end{pmatrix}p^{k}\left( 1-p\right) ^{n-k}\]
(二)计算概率\(p\)
二项分布的期望为: \[E(X)=np=\mu\]
那么:\[p=\cfrac{\mu}{n}\]
(三)泊松分布的推导
有了\(p=\cfrac{\mu}{n}\)了之后,就有:\[\lim _{n\rightarrow \infty }\begin{pmatrix} n \\
k \end{pmatrix}p^{k}\left( 1-p\right) ^{n-k}=\lim _{n\rightarrow \infty
}\begin{pmatrix} n \\ k \end{pmatrix}{(\cfrac{\mu}{n})}^{k}\left(
1-\cfrac{\mu}{n}\right) ^{n-k}\]
在寻找犯罪统计与天文学观察中相同的规律性的过程中,他认为,正如星星有一个具体的位置(不考虑定位测量方法的差异性),我们的社会同样存在着一个犯罪率水平。他构造了“平常人”和“道德人”的概念,并断定平常人具有一种统计意义上的“持续的犯罪倾向”。这使得“社会物理学家”能够计算出随着时间推移的轨迹,“能够揭示出简单的运行规律和预测未来”。(Gigerenzer
et al, 1989)
1837年,泊松把研究成果发表在“Research on the Probability of Judgments
in Criminal and Civil
Matters”。在该论文中他提出了我们现在所说的“泊松分布”公式。文中讲述了大量随机事件发生具体次数的概率(如大多数的法国陪审员做出错误判决的概率)。例如,我们假设平均一年会有45人被雷电击中。把这个数据和人口数量运用到泊松公式中,可以得到一年中有10人、50人或者100人被雷电击中的概率。假设条件是雷击是相互独立且罕见的事件,并且会在任意时间等可能发生。换句话说,泊松公式能够告诉你只因偶然性而导致罕见事件发生的概率。
让我们回到嗡嗡炸弹的例子。以下是掉落到不同区域的炸弹个数的形象化表示,由Charles
Franklin根据在British Archives in Kew的原始地图重现。
注:澄清说明。上图显示的是掉落到伦敦的炸弹的分布。我现在问的问题是,如果你把城市受到严重攻击的区域放大来看(尤其是上图中的高峰区),那么炸弹是受到更精确的操纵而击中明确的目标吗?这远远不是均匀分布,但它显示出了精确瞄准的迹象了吗?现在你应该猜出如何回答这个问题了。在一篇题为“An
Application of the Poisson Distribution”的报告中,一位名叫R. D.
Clarke的英国统计学家写道:
说明: 1. 翻译自Weinstein JN,et al.Spinal pedicle fixation:
reliability and validity of roentgenogram-based assessment and surgical
factors on successful screw placement.Spine,1988,13(9):1012-8.
自从King于1944年首次将short screws几乎横向穿过腰椎后柱的lateral
articulations(transfacet/关节突)。在此基础上,脊柱内固定技术在Boucher,Pennel,Roy-Camille,Louis
and Maresca,Cabot,Steffee等人的努力下,不断改进。
说明: 1. 翻译自Joel M. Matta, M.D.的文章Excellence in Clinical
Practice: How to Improve Your Clinical Results.Journal of Orthopaedic
Trauma,2005,19(6):p432-434. 2. 译文部分参考自丁香园的帖子:Joel M.
Matta大师的教义和作为一个普通的创伤骨科医师的我的感悟
Dr. Joel Matta is an Orthopaedic Surgeon Practicing Hip and Pelvic
Reconstruction. He is the founder and director of the Hip and Pelvis
Institute at St. John’s Health Center in Santa Monica, Calif. A veteran
of 35 years in the practice of orthopaedic surgery, Dr. Matta also is
the founding President of the Anterior Hip Foundation. He has published
more than 30 articles and studies on the advancement of techniques and
methods used to simplify and improve hip replacement, pelvic and
acetabular fracture treatment and periacetabular osteotomy.
一、什么是卓越的临床效果
What is the formula for excellence in orthopaedicclinical practice?
Certainly, there is no set formula for everyone. These aremy thoughts
based on what I have learned from others, as well as my personal
experience.
There are a number of ways that excellence can be measured, but I
think the most important one is the benefit or the clinical results that
we provide to our patients. Excellent clinical results exist in many
settings and are not necessarily related to the notoriety of the surgeon
or institution.
Monetary reward will influence our activities to a degree; However,
you sell yourself short if you place money first. Fortunately,in
orthopaedics we can “have our cake and eat it too.”
Our specialty allows us to enjoy our work as much as sport, gain
personal satisfaction and community recognition, and also be well
compensated. I think the key to all of these benefits is our passion and
commitment to our work. There are few careers available that combine the
pleasure of both manual and intellectual challenges.
注:金钱的私欲是医生的短板。就此短短一截的距离即可使你对卓越的临床实践难以企及。就像Matta教授说的,金钱不是追求,而是你有所成就后的自然而然的回报;这种回报的对象,即医生,是被动的(be
well
compensated)。我们自己的蛋糕,即骨科领域,有着丰富的回报足以让我们享用。得到回报的前提是作为医者的你对临床工作的激情和担当。
三、与患者充分的沟通
Although we are surgeons, and the job we do in the operating room is
probably the most important, we also must take pride in our one-on-one
skills with patients. If patients are able, the more that they
understand about their problem, the better. Detailed preoperative and
postoperative explanations can help the final result. I also rely on
patient-information publications and my own website to inform the
patient and family.
The surgeon must be disciplined regarding their physical examination
of the patient with acute high-energy trauma. The patient should be
completely undressed and all skin areas visualized. In addition to a
complete and detailed neurovascular examination, all the extremities
that do not have an obvious deformity should be palpated and moved. Use
x-rays liberally.
For the subacute or chronic problem,listen carefully to the patient.
You need to always assume that the patient is telling the truth and is
not crazy or a “crock.” There are many problems that we don’t yet
understand,and everyone does not fit neatly into a category. Many old
trauma problems,such as malunions and nonunions, require a unique
solution that you need toinvent. The extra time that you spend in
planning and consultation in these patients will make a difference.
At times we find ourselves at a loss with patients, particularly
those with chronic pain problems who often will say “you’ve got to do
something” or “I can’t live likethis.” The justification for surgical
treatment should not be based on such desperate reasoning. Surgery
should always have a probability of success when undertaken. In some
situations, you may have nothing to offer the patient, and in that case
it is best to say so.
In a few cases, I have gone so far as to tell patients that they
should quit seeing doctors before somebody operates on them. A large
proportion of these difficult patients are chronic narcotic users. I
believe it is our responsibility to limit prescription of these
medications to acute or terminal situations, such as neoplasm.
Be an expert in the interpretation of x-rays,CT, and magnetic
resonance imaging. These imaging studies combined with the clinical
factors provide the main indications for surgery.
Have indications for surgery; do not operate just because a fracture
is present. The integrity of you and our specialty suffers with the
application of faulty indications for surgery. Operating without the
proper indication is not justunethical, it is an assault.
We all must aspire to perform the highest quality of orthopaedic
surgery that we are capable of doing. Within your chosen niche, you
should do everything you can to learn from the best.
Read publications and texts. Attend courses. As we interpret medical
data, large multicenter studies report the standard level of care that
is present as an average across centers. Pay attention to the results of
experienced and knowledgeable single surgeon series. The large single
surgeon series can represent the level of results that can beobtained
with dedication to that subject.
Visit and observe patient care and surgery with the field’s best.
Most orthopaedic surgeons are open to this. A corollary to this is:
learn and adopt the best existing techniques completely before
attempting to modify them or develop new ones. By doing this, the
maximum benefit to the patient can be obtained, and in some cases
disasters can be avoided.
As a resident in 1978, I attended my first Swiss AO Course. On
returning home, I was delighted to be presented with a tibial plafond
fracture. I operated enthusiastically; however, as the months
progressed, I watched in horror as greenbone fell out of the wound. I
had learned how to plate and screw the bone, but not how to make the
proper incision and handle the soft tissues.
Similarly,successful acetabular fracture surgery is achievable with
the specific combinations of the operating table, patient positioning,
surgical approach, reduction techniques, and implants.
I have a few visitors who wish only to peer into the open wound. It
bears repetition that you should learn and adopt the best existing
techniques in their entirety before attempting to modify and develop new
ones.This knowledge will keep you from repeating the mistakes of past
failed techniques and forms the basis of our technical evolution.
“I think we have to learn to live with the fact that very few
surgeons can invent something truly novel. Most of us should accept that
they need to learn the knowledge that's gone before, and to try to be as
good as those who are achieving the excellent results. This may be hard
to swallow, but that's how it is.”
“ The protocoland techniques developed by Emile Letournel have the
merit of being there, of being efficacious, but also of being the best
supported by clinical follow-up and clinical data. Everything proposed
by Emile Letournel is supported by very advanced statistics. These
results have been confirmed by Jeff, by Keith Mayo,by Eric Johnson, by
myself, and by many other surgeons.
“It would be a shame if the surgery of acetabular fractures were to
get overwhelmed by too many unproven novelties. It is one thing to
devise a new technique; it is quite another to show that the techniqueis
valid, and superior to the techniques currently available.”
九、聪明才智对外科医生更重要
Is everyone created equal as surgeons? Of course not. Surgery is a
combination of intellect and motor skills. I would say that intellect is
by far the most important factor. The most important factors before
surgery are an understanding of the fracture and establishing a good
preoperative plan, including setup, approach, reduction, and fixation
strategies. Concentrate your plan more on how you will reduce the
fracture rather than how you will fix it. Reduction is typically a
bigger problem then placing the implant. For a given surgery, one of
several implants may be applicable, and your familiarity with a device
may be the reason to use it.
I think that surgeons are best judged not by a surgery in which
everything goes well, but by how they react when things start to go
wrong. I have witnessed ‘flails’ triggered by panic with the situation
going from bad to worse. The high stress of a problem situation should
ideally trigger your mind to a higher level of focus to deal effectively
with the unexpected problem. Experience and contingent strategies can
help in these situations.
We need to critically assess the result of the surgeries that we
perform. I would say that a minority of my surgeries is performed
completely to my satisfaction, particularly acetabular fractures.
Postoperative x-rays always should be a stimulus for thoughts regarding
how things could have been done a little better.
采访原文:“In my series,I have had a 15 percent incidence of poor
results. This includes, of course,the 3 per cent infections. There were,
of course, patients who had lesions that could not possibly be treated,
but also patients whom I should not have operated.”
十二、手术速度也是关键
How critical is speed when performing surgery?At the beginning of my
career, I did not consider speed to be important; now I think it is,
although admittedly not the most consequential factor. I think speed is
a benefit in limiting tissue trauma and infection. It also is an
economic factor for you and the hospital as well as one that limits the
number of patients you can benefit.
During my early years of operating on acetabular fractures, I was
assisted for the first time by my chief, Gus Sarmiento, on a
Kocher-Langenbeck approach to a transverse plus posterior wall fracture.
If you know Gus Sarmiento, you know that he is not a particularly
patient person. Gus’first words at the scrub sink were, ‘Joel, how long
is this going to take?’My response, ‘Gus, relax and get ready for a
4-hour case.’ His response,‘Four hours, I’ll give you 2!’ The case took
2 hours and the result was asgood as my 4-hour cases; from that time
forward, similar cases took approximately 2 hours.
Conversely, you should take whatever time is necessary to achieve the
desired result. Speed is not a primary goal but should increase
progressively with your years of experience. Watching a good surgery go
quickly means that you will not see particularly fast movements, but
rather well planned and effective ones.
As an orthopaedic surgeon, you are the organizer and leader of the
operating room team. You assume this role, regardless of whether you are
inherently organized or an obvious leader type. I don’t think that
personal charisma or forcefulness is a prerequisite for leading an
effective operating room team. The factors that I consider most
important are planning, respect, education, and encouragement for your
team members and working with your team in a hands-on way.The concern
that you show for the patient and the commitment that you show to
achieve an excellent surgical result will rub off. By all means, don’t
be the one who is responsiblefor delays, or your tardiness and lack of
efficiency also will rub off. Leading the teamto improve performance and
efficiency is a job that never stops.
Surgical complications are inevitable, and the indication for any
surgery must be judged relative to their potential incidence. When a
complication occurs, an honest discussion with the patient at an early
time is essential. There is a tendency to feel guilty and to avoid the
inevitable discussion with the patient and family. It is important to
use the word ‘complication’ and confront the situation openly and
directly. The patient will at least take comfort that you are no less
involved in their care and will do everything possible to ensure a
positive outcome.
Surgical wound complications, such as hematoma and infection, are
some of the most difficult to face and potentially harmful to the
patient. Three orthopaedic surgeons can look at a wound regarding
infection and say no, maybe, or yes. It is easier to pronounce a
colleague’s wound infected than your own. Saying ‘infection is present’
to you, the patient, and also writing it in the chart clears the way for
providing effective treatment.
The public often believes the myth that miracles in medicine are the
norm. The truth is that we treat most problems with significant
limitations with respect to our understanding and knowledge, and it is
likely that we will retrospectively view many of our current treatments
as primitive. Getting good results after orthopaedic trauma entails
great difficulties. We,therefore, need to practice with honesty and
humility.
I believe that a simple documentation system,including diagnosis,
treatment, complications, and results, is a big help in quality control.
Simple data forms that can be coded in a prospective manner and entered
into a computer database may not add a great deal of time and expense to
your practice. This information can guide the evolution of yourpractice
methods. It is important to have results to compare to improve
ourresults. Changes to improve results are best used for groups of
patients or fractures with a high level of poor results and/or
complications.
I like to give credit to my mentors. In my own career, my most
important mentors have been Augusto Gus Sarmiento and Emile Letournel. I
take pride in my own contributions to orthopaedic knowledge,
butrecognize that a huge basis of my practice is what I have learned
from others.
I consider health and lifestyle to be important in my performance as
an orthopaedic surgeon. Some restraint with food and alcohol, as well as
exercise, benefits you and your patients. I think a mistake that most of
us make is not taking enough time off. I once asked Harald Tscherne how
much vacation he took. He answered, ‘Six weeks.’ I said that must
include your educational travel. ‘No,’ he said, ‘six weeks vacation.’
None of us would question Prof. Tscherne’s commitment or
productivity.
You have carefully selected your career and have passed an extensive
training and selection process to become an orthopaedic trauma surgeon.
The evolution of your practice toward improved clinical results will
make it all the more exciting and rewarding.